Druidism

Thanks be to Raven, Jaguar, JJ Kane, Kami Landy, Iarwain, Branfionn Heartfire, Erynn, Anthony Thompson, Tyagi, and everyone at Nemeton-L and Imbas-L. Special thanks to The Gods!

Copyright (c) 1994. The Fifth edition is Copyright (c) 1996.

This document is distributed on the net as a public service. It may be copied at will, provided the authorship, version, and date remains intact, and no part of the document is altered, deleted, or edited in any way. This document may not be copied for profit without the expressed written permission of the author. This document is not an authoritative scholarly reference on the Druids, nor on Celtic society, though it uses references. It is a pointer, a guide, an introduction.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
0. Charter of the Newsgroup alt.religion.druid
1. Introduction
2. Why Druidism in the 20th Century?
3. Who were the Druids?
4. What other classes existed in Celtic society?
5. What is the history of the Celtic people?
6. Can women become Druids?
7. What are the Celtic Nations?
8. What are the sources by which we can know the Druids?
9. Did the Druids practice human sacrifice?
10. What are some other common misconceptions about Druidism?
11. What are the symbols of Druidism?
12. What are the letters in the Ogham Alphabet?
13. What are the Druidic holy days?
14. What did the ancient Druids believe?
15. Earth, Air, Fire, Water; Is n't that Celtic?
16. What Gods did the Druids worship?
17. What is the difference between Wicca and Druidism?
18. Were the Druids Shamen?
19. What animals were sacred to the Druids?
20. Was Stonehenge a Druidic temple?
21. What about Glastonbury?
22. Are there any other Druidic sites?
23. What is Arthurian Druidism?
24. What is Culdee?
25. What is Romantic Druidism?
26. What is the Faerie Faith?
27. What modern Druid organisations exist?

0. CHARTER OF ALT.RELIGION.DRUID
[ From Anthony_Thompson@brown.edu ] Quoted with permission

Alt.religion.druid exists as a forum for discussion of the mysticism, history, archeology, and literature of druids (often related to the Celtic peoples of northern European history: the Britons or Gauls, and their religious or shamanic social elite). While t here is some debate as to the historical survival of druids or information concerning them, the newsgroup will include all manner of speculation regarding the practice and theory surrounding druids of ancient and modern times.

As with the creation of alt.religion.wicca and alt.religion.asatru, alt.religion.druid shall provide a forum for discussion not already covered by existing newsgroups. Related newsgroups likesoc.culture.celtic, alt.mythology, and alt.pagan may well include druidic spirituality as a part of its charter, but not exclusively so. Also, alt.religion.druid shall provide a hierarchy for newsgroups associated with particular druid organisations to subclass from in the future should the need arise (eg, alt.religion.druid.adf or alt.religion.druid.keltria).

1. INTRODUCTION
I am a solitary practicing Druid, Bard, Fianna, or Celtic Pagan; but labelling myself I find unnecessary. I don't belong to anorder or coven, not because I feel these groups do not have merit, but because they do not always agree, and because at the moment I prefer solitary practice. I have Celtic ancestors. I like learning about the ancient Celts, specifically their beliefs and practices, and I have a desire to emulate them in a manner valid for myself and for this century. If you agree with one or more of these statements, you could be drawn to Druidism, and so this FAQ is for you.

This fifth edition attempts to address some new questions, and address the previously-ignored Romantic style of Druidism. As always, emphasis is placed upon that which is historically proven, or historically plausible by induction from known facts.

2. WHY DRUIDISM IN THE 20TH CENTURY?
There are a number of good reasons for modern people to consider Druidism today. Some see it as a way to reconnect, or "ground" themselves in history, or to improve their relationship with their ancestors (if they are of Celtic descent). Some are attracted by the relationship with the natural world that a Druid cultivates, or by the artistic, creative methods used to build that relationship.

There are those who choose Druidism over other forms of neo-paganism. Perhaps a reason for that is because Druidism is not only a branch of neopaganism, but also the subject of academic study. Druidism is often of interest to archaeologists, historians, and mythographers who don't necessarily consider themselves Druids, or even remotely pagan. Thus, there is a wealth of serious academic material available concerning the Druids, and many discover Druidism through it.

Finally, there are those who choose Druidism over moreconventional Western religions that are more accepted and widespread, suchas Christianity. Druidism belongs to the Indo-European set from which wein the West inherit virtually all our other cultural practices, including our languages, whereas Christianity comes from the middle-east. An exploration of Druidism is for many people a revival of one of Western Europe's indigenous spiritualities. Many seek Asatru to revive Northern Europe's spirituality for much of the same reason. To those who feel alienated by Christianity, and still believe religion has a place in their lives, paganism is a viable, and healthy alternative.

3. WHO WERE THE DRUIDS?
The main thing that can be said about the Druids is th atthey were members of a professional class in their culture, the Celtic Nations of Western Europe and the British Isles. (The Druids were not anethnic group; their culture, the Celtic culture, was.) They filled the roles of judge, doctor, diviner, mage, mystic, and clerical scholar; in other words, they were the intelligensia of their culture, which is the Iron-Age people of the Celtic Nations (see Nations #7) The mythologies describe Druids who were capable of many magical powers suchas divination & prophesy, control of the weather, healing, levitation, and shapechanging. Their education was so rigourous that at the end of it they were virtually walking encycopaedias. The best word for them would seem to be "priests", yet I am reluctant to use it for two reasons: The Romans never used it, and because Druids didn't preach to congregations as priests do.

Rather, they had a clientele, like a mystic, a shaman, or a lawyer would have. (see Shamen #18) Caesar and his historians never referred to them as priests, but perhaps they could not recognise them as such; the Roman priesthood, officiating over an essentially political religion, were primarily teachers and judges, with less emphasis on being seers or diviners, whereas the Druids appeared to have both legal and magical powers.

4. WHAT OTHER CLASSES EXISTED IN CELTIC SOCIETY?
Other classes in the old Celtic social order were the warrior-aristocracy, Fianna warriors, Bards, land-holders, freeborn labourers, and non-freeborn labourers. Celtic law included ways for anyone, including non-freeborn labourers, to move up or down the social heirarchy; what rights and responsibilities were due to each of them, and what kind of punishment could be given to criminals according to their status (for more was expected from tho se who had more). Of interest to those studying Druidism are the Bards and the Fianna.

Bards and Fili were the primary keepers of the histories, genealogies, laws, poetry, music and stories of the Celtic people. Their training was similar to the Druid's t raining, and their rank in society was second only to the King. Bards were guaranteed to receive special hospitality wherever they went, and be free from insult, among other rights; a breach of this would allow the bard to compose a satire-poem that would tarnish the offender's reputation for generations to come.

The Fianna was an out-caste class of warriors, typically adolescents and young-adults, similar to the Hindu "sadus" but more militant and limnal than religious in nature. Still, there is a mystical dimension to the Fianna, for many of them were accomplished poets and seers, and Fenian myth abounds with hunting trips that wind up in the Otherworld. Perhaps it is easier to slip into magical space when onelives on the border of civilisation and savagery.

The Fenian cycle in Irish myth is concerned with the activities of Fionn MacCumhall and hisband of Fianna warriors. Becoming a Fianna was an acceptable way for people to "drop out" of society for a short time to resolve the developmental tasks of maturity , and to earn their place in adult society.

5. WHAT IS THE HISTORY OF THE CELTIC PEOPLE?
In general, it is believed by historians that the Celtic people migrated from a common Indo-European homeland somewhere in eastern Europe and migrated westward. The British Isles may have been visited by pre-Celtic people as early as the retreat of the Ice Age. Here is a brief timeline of the history of the Celtic people, focusing on the time period which is relevant to this FAQ, and the islands of Britain and Ireland.

Era	People	Notes
Up to 4000 BCE	Mesolithic	Hunter-gatherers
4000-1800 BCE	Neolithic	Construction of Maes
First Farmers	Howe, Callanish, and other megalithic monuments
1800-1600 BCE	Bronze Age
1000-Christian Era	Iron Age
900-500 BCE	Hallstatt	Rise of the Celts
500-15 BCE	La Tene	Heroic Age Celts Most mythologies take place in this period
55-54 BCE		Caesar invades Britain
AD 43-409	Romano-British	Rome dominates Britain south of Hadrian's Wall (constructed AD 120)
AD 409-600	"Dark Age" Britain	Final Roman withdrawal Patrick's mission to Eire Circa AD 450 Anglo-Saxon invasion
Circa AD 500		Arthur defeats Saxons at Mount Baden
Circa AD 500		Formation of Dalriada
AD 563		Saint Columba arrives at Isle of Iona.

6. CAN WOMEN BECOME DRUIDS?
Yes! The mythologies record that many Druids were women; in fact Celtic women enjoyed more freedom and rights than women in any other culture of that time, including the rights to enter battle, own and inherit property, trace her kinship matrilinially, and divorce her husband. The Irish hero Cu/Chullain was trained by a land-owning warrior queen named Scathach, for whom the Scottish island of Skye is named. In the Welsh myth, there is the powerful sorceress/Goddess Cerridwen, and also Arianrhod who ruled Caer Arianrhod. (See Gods #16) In Briton, Boudicca was a female chieftain powerful enough to lead a revolt against the Romans in 61 BCE. Fionn MacCumhall, from the Irish Fenian myths, was trained in poetry and magic by a Druidess.

Women were also permitted to become Fianna. (see Classes #4) Asa (Irish for "Gentle") became Fianna and took the name Ni-Asa ("Not Gentle"), which eventually became "Nessa", at the time she became mother to King Conchobar. Her influence was such that her son kept her name instead of his father's name, thus: "Conchobar Mac Nessa", or "Conor, son of Nessa".

Thus there is no reason to believe that Druidism was strictly and unilaterally patriarchal in ancient times, and modern Druidism certainly is not remotely patriarchal.

7. WHAT ARE THE CELTIC NATIONS?
The traditional Celtic nations, where Celtic civilisation achieved its height, are Alba (Scotland), Breizh (Brittany, or Gaul, what is now France), Cymru (Wales), Eire (Ireland), Galati a (northern Spain), Kernow (Cornwall), Mannin (Isle of Man), and Britain. The Celtic people migratedfrom the ancient indo-european homelands in eastern Europe, to span most of western Europe, and La Tene period artifacts, their remains, can accordingly be found everywhere. In modern times, strong Celtic cultural centers can be found in Newfoundland and Nova Scotia, Canada, some parts of New England, USA, and Australia.

8. WHAT ARE THE SOURCES BY WHICH WE CAN KNOW THE DRUIDS?
The main sources we have on what they did are Roman historians, such data as archeological remains can provide, and mythological literature recorded by monks in the eighth through twelfth century. Also, analogies can be drawn between the Celts and such Indo-European cultures that existed around the same time and had the same level of cultural achievement, such as the Hindu people. The Roman historians wrote on them as they were in the process of conquering Gaul (what is now France; a variant of Gaelic is still spoken in Brittany) so they are usually under stood as "hostile witnesses".

Nevertheless they were often impressed by the Druids' grasp of mathematical and astronomical skill. One Roman author, Diogenes, placed the Druids on a list of the ancient world's wisest philosophers; a list which included the Magi of Persia, the Chaldeans (the priesthood of the Babylonians) and the Gymnosophists (an Hindu sect which preceded the Yogis), all of whom were singled out for their skill in mathematics, physics, and philosophy. To the Romans, the Celts were the origin al "noble savage". :)

But in my point of view, the best sources are the mythologies. There we can read of what the Druids did, how they behaved, what some ofthem said, and though the medieval manuscripts that preserved them were written and edited by Christian monks, much wisdom yet remains there. In Ireland the four chief myth cycles are the Ulster Cycle, the Fionn Cycle, the Invasion Races, and the Cycle of Kings. In Wales, the primary myths are contained in a book called The Mabinogion. In this century, a number of folklore collections were made of remaining oral-tradition stories.

The problem is that the Druids were the subject of a number ofpersecutions and conquests, not only by the Romans, but also by Norsemen, Normans, Saxons, and Christians. Much Druidic wisdom was censored, evolved into something unrecognisable, or just plain lost. A modern person seeking the Druid's path must attempt to reconstruct the wisdom based on the sources discussed above. Yet in doing so, one discovers that despite the enormous amount of cultural data presumed lost, the truly Celtic disposition of the sources remains strong and clear. Much Druidic magic also can be found in the writings of the Irish Literary Revival, with such authors as Yeats and Joyce. The Romans never invaded Ireland, so that country became a haven for Druidic learning for a while.

After St. Patrick and St. Columcille, Ireland evolved an unique and beautiful blend of Christianity and Druidism, called Culdee Christianity, headquartered on the Isle of Iona, which was later to be eradicated by the English. Catholicism eventually became an important element of national identity in Ireland, and without it they may never have become independent.

9. DID THE DRUIDS PRACTICE HUMAN SACRIFICE?
The Romans recorded that the Druids sacrificed condemned criminals. Judicial executions were no different elsewhere in Europe, including Saxony. The Romans wrote that such victims were tied into huge wicker man-shaped effigies and burned alive. The archeological record does reveal a number of sacrificial deaths, such as "triple-deaths" where the victim was drowned, stoned, and impaled on a spear simultaneously. Some mythologies describe one person's life being sacrificed so that a terminally ill noble would survive, thus indicating a belief in a cosmic balance of forces. To the Celts, death was not the frightening, final thing it is to most of us born in the 20th century (see Belief #14), and human sacrifice may not have been so immoral. There were also some forms of punishment deemed worse than death, such as banishment. It is important not to impose on the ancient peoples our own cultural values.

However, there is some debate over this; it may have been anti-Druid propaganda. Julius Caesar had good reason to make the Druids look bad, because, after all, he was trying to conquer them. It would fuel interest in his campaign back home if he could prove that the Celts engaged in such barbaric practices. Yet the Romans would kill people in gladiatorial games, for the entertainment of the people. The Druids, if they did sacrifice people, could claim religious sanction. The archeological record is ambiguous if such sacrifice was judicial or ceremonial. Furthermore there is no evidence of human sacrifice in Ireland's archeology, to my knowledge, though there is evidence of animal sacrifice there.

Rest assured that modern Druids do not sacrifice anything at all (though the author of this paper is fond of sacrificing an occasional pint of Guinness).

10. WHAT ARE SOME OTHER COMMON MISCONCEPTIONS OF DRUIDISM?
Since the early Romantic Revival of Druidism, which began in the early eighteenth century, there have been many ideas on Druidism that owe more to imagination than to history. Here are some of the most common:

- "The Barddas": a book of Welsh Bardic and Druidic knowledge. This book is known to be almost entirely forged by its author, Iolo Morganwyg. It claims as a source the "Book of Pheryllt", which is also a fictional work. It makes good poetry, but very poor history. Distinguishing the two is important, but almost never easy. (see also Romantic Druidism #25)<
BR> - "The Druids were Monotheists": A popular idea during the Romantic Revival, but without historical sanction, for there were many large and complicated pantheons of Deities, and not all were common to all the Celtic nations. Many of Druidism's early revivers were strongly influenced by Freemasonry and other similar fraternal orders, and attributed to Druids the worship of an exclusively male Christian God. Also, more recently, some hav e believed that the Druids worshipped the Earth Mother exclusively, but while Earth-mother Goddesses are present in the Celtic pantheons, they are not usually worshipped exclusively.

- "The Druids were from Atlantis": There are many myths of magical islands in the Atlantic, but Atlantis was not one of them. The earliest documented evidence on Atlantis comes from Plato, who was a Greek and not a Celt, and was probably writingan allegory and not a history. He wrote that the chief god of Atlantiswas Posidon , a Greek (not Celtic) God.

- "Pumpkin Blossoms were a Holy Druidic Tree": Pumpkins are, for one thing, not trees, and secondly, not native to Europe. The Druids could not have been aware of their existence. The Jack-o-Lantern used at Halloween (Samhain) would have been a turnip, but that is not a tree either. It's function was to ward off the souls of the dead, but this tradition owes its origin to Mediaeval times, for the Celts had no great fear of death.

- "Samhain was a Celtic God": Samhain is the name of a festival, not a God of the Dead, though the festival is associated with the dead. In the Mediaeval times the fear of the dead, and of the old religion, wastaught to the populace in order to integrate Christianity more completely. Indeed, most of the things we typically associate with Halloween (vampires, devils, etc.) come from this period and not Celtic myth.

- "The Ogham Alphabet was used by Druids for divination": Virtually all the Ogham inscriptions that exist are burial monuments or landmarks. It's not enough evidence to claim that Ogham was used as an oracular tool by Druids, however, many modern Druids do use ogham effectively for that purpose. Historians cannot be certain because any Ogham inscriptions carved on wood have rotted away long ago. Each letter in the Ogham alphabet was also the name of a tree, which had a mystical meaning associated with each tree. (see also Ogham #12)

- "The Druids were celibate": Actually Druids were encouraged to marry and raise families. The Irish seer Cathbhad was the father of Conchobar Mac Nessa, for example. (see Women #6) This misconception is another attempt to christianize the early Druids.

11. WHAT ARE THE SYMBOLS OF DRUIDISM?
Druidism probably did not have one universal symbol to represent itself, since it was differentiated between seven different Celtic nations, and divided further into many tribes within these nations. Some of the most commonly used symbols are:

- The Triskele: a rounded spiral with three arms radiating from a central point, turning coun ter-clockwise (unlike the Nazi swastika). It stands for any one of hundreds of Triads in Celtic literature, but typically is understood as standing for the land, sea, and sky, which composed the foundation of the Celtic cosmology.

- The Spiral: Neo-lithic monuments typically have spiral patterns carved into the stones. Being pre-celtic, we have no clear idea what the Spiral meant to the people who carved them, although it is reasonable to believe they stood for the cycles of seasons, of day and night, a nd of life and death. A famous spiral in Newgrange has three spirals connecting each other, which is thought to stand for the Irish triple-goddess Banba, Fodhla, and Erin; but as with the triskele, it could stand for any Triad.

- The Awen: Three upright bars, with the tops of the outer two bars leaning toward the top of the center bar. Its first appearance in Druidism appears to be in the Bardass. Sometimes the Awen is draw with three stars above it, and the whole enclosed in three circles.

- The Circle : As with many indo-european sun symbols, the Circle is the simple geometric shape we all know and love. The Sun and the Earth are all round as circles, so the shape is a natural symbol for enviro-centric religion. It makes up the pagan part of the Celt ic Cross. Circles are also the shape that many megalithic monuments are constructed in, which is why we call them "stone circles" and "round barrows".

- The Celtic Cross: A Christian Cross with a circle surrounding the point where the vertical and horizontal lines of the Cross intersect. It is the essential symbol of Culdee Christianity, and is commonly used as monuments, grave markers, and landmarks indicating holy sites. The largest Celtic Crosses are carved from stone blocks and stand at Culdee monastaries, such as at Iona and Aberlemno. (see Culdee #24)

- The Druid Sigil: A circle intersected by two vertical lines. There is a photo of a Romano-British building located at Black Holmes, Thistleton, Leicestershire, with this symbol as the foundation; other than that, this author knows of no ancient origin for this symbol.

- The Egg: The Druid's Egg was described mythologically as a small object formed from the spittle of serpents, and possessing healing qualities. Pliny (a Roman historian) said he was shown one of t hese objects by a Druid from Gaul, which he named as "anguinum". Existence of eggs in Druidic mysticism causes some scholars (and new-age fiction authors) to believe that the Druid's creation-myth was the same as the Sumerian creation story, in which the world was hatched from a divine primordial egg.

- The God with the Horns: An image of a male God with horns on his head, usually stag antlers but sometimes small bull horns. Though this symbol probably represents the God in the image and not Druidism as a whole, it is used quite commonly by modern pagans. The stag antlers represent tree branches, and thus stand for fertility; the bull horns stand for power-- in a culture where the measure of one's economic affluence was the size of one's cattle herds, bull horns clearly symbolises power. Goat horns were not used, nor introduced into Horned God images until the Christian period, and at this time the probably stood for subservience, domesticity, and also sin & evil (hence "Scapegoat").

- The Crescent Moon : A symbol probably introduced into Druidism by the Romantics, it stands for the divine Feminine principle of fertility, corresponding by opposition to the God with the Horns.

- The Tree: The primary symbol of Druidic thought, however, each species of tree known to the Druids had a meaning of its own. There probably was no one symbolic meaning applied to all trees.

- The Head: Heads definitely had mystical significance. To the Celts, it was the seat of the soul. Mythologies report many heroes beheading their enemies to ensure they stay dead (not an unreasonable precaution in this time period) and numerous excavations of Celtic buildings have niche holes carved to hold human heads.

- Long White Beards: Romantic period depictions of Druids in art and in caricature typically showed them with long white beards, long white hair, and long white robes. Your author thinks they look ridiculous. :)

12. WHAT ARE THE LETTERS IN THE OGHAM ALPHABET?

Letter
B
L
N
F
S
H
D
T
C
Q
M
G
Ng
St
R
A
O
U
E
I

Name
Beth (BETH)
Luis (LWEESH)
Nionn (NEE-uhn)
Fearn (FAIR-n)
Saille (SHAL-yuh)
Huath (HOO-ah)
Duir (DOO-r)
Tinne (CHIN-yuh)
Coll (CULL)
Quert (KWAIRT)
Muin (MUHN)
Gort (GORT)
Ngetal (NYEH-tl)
Straiff (STRAHF)
Ruis (RWEESH)
Ailm (AHL-m)
Onn (UHN)
Ura (OO-rah)
Eadha (EH-yuh)
Idho (EE-yoh)

Tree
Birch
Rowan
Ash
Alder
Willow
Hawthorn
Oak
holly
Hazel
Apple
vine
Ivy
Reed
Blackthorn
Elder
Silver Fir
Furze, or Gorse
Heather
Poplar
Yew

On the archeological artifacts where Ogham has been found, the letters appear as horizontal strokes and slashes across a vertical base line, which is typically the corner edge of an upright standing stone. They do not appear as the arabic characters we use in modern Indo-european languages.

13. WHAT ARE THE DRUIDS' HOLY DAYS?
There was a series of fire-festivals, occurring at approximately 12-week intervals, and spaced between the seasonal festivals of solstices and equinox (thus, a festival roughly every six weeks.) These fire-festivals would last three days, beginning at sunset on the first day, and would be the best time for sacrifices and divinations. They are:

- Samhain (1st November: pronounced SOW-win) Feast of the Dead, and beginning of the new year. Death came before Life in the Druidic cycle, because before new growth can occur, there must be room for it. On this day the boundary between this world and the Otherworld is thinnest, and so it is a time to remember and respect all those who died during the year. Games, feasts, and bonfires were held in honour of the Dead, and often the Faeries would hold revels of their own, and invite mortals to join them.> - Imbolc (1st February: pronounced IM-volk) The Return of Light. The ewes begin lactating around this time of year, and it is a sign that winter is coming to an end. Perhaps divinations were cast to determine when spring would come (from this practice we might have got Groundhog Day.) Imbolc celebrates the coming springtime and preparations for the planting season are begun. In Anglo-Saxon and Wiccan culture, Imbolc is sometimes called Candlemas.

- Beltaine (1st May: pronounced BEL-tain-yuh) The Fires of Bel. Spring has arrived, and the people give thanks. This was a day of fertility and life, often the choice day for marriages. This is the beginning of the summer half of the year, and the mid point of the seasonal cycle. Fairs, dances, and marriage divination games were held at this time of year, and often there would be a minor baby boom nine months later... :)

- Lughnasad (1st August: pronounced LOO-na-shav) The Feast of Lugh. The essential harvest festival, to give thanks to the Earth for Her bounty. The name is a reference to the Irish god Lugh of the Long Hand, son of the Sun, who defeated Balor and won the knowledge of animal husbandry. Lugh is said to have instituted funeral games for his foster-mother Taltiu who died in the battle against Balor. In Anglo-Saxon and Wic can culture, this festival is called Lammas, or "loaf-mass", as it celebrates the end of last year's harvest and the beginning of the current harvest.

I understand that Australians who practice these festivals do it in reverse order, because these dates are for northern-hemisphere seasons. It would make sense for them to celebrate Beltaine on November 1, for example.

In Wales, there was an annual festival called the Eisteddfod, which was a bardic musical and poetry competition. It still exists, alternating between North and South Wales.

During these festivals, great bonfires were built on hilltops and kept burning throughout the whole of the fire festivals. By day, there would be carnival-like celebrations, and by night, serious rituals. Cattle were driven between bonfires to purify them, and couples would runand leap over the flames, often completely naked, also for purification (and it was fun!) Some sites were centers for the "perpetual chant", where Druids in rotation would chant incantations without stop; during festivals the entire community would join the chant.

Astronomical celebrations (the solstices and equinox) have only passing reference in the source literature (i.e. the myths, Caesar, etc.), and so would appear to have less importance in the Celtic cosmology, but astronomical alignments are found everywhere in the archaeology. There are hundreds of stone circles, round barrows, menhirs, etc. with solar, lunar,and/or stellar alignments. Perhaps the most impressive is New Grange, Ireland, where direct sunlight penetrates the inner chamber only on Midwinter morning.

14. WHAT DID THE ANCIENT DRUIDS BELIEVE?

A complete and full answer to this question is beyond the scope of this fact sheet, but perhaps an outline of some of the important points will suffice.

The poetic tradition in Druidism comes from the method the Celts used to trace their lineage and history. Written records were distrusted for the most part, and though a runic writing system called Ogham did exist, (see Ogham #12) it wasn't used for much beyond burial monuments and landmarks. To write things down is to weaken the power of edidic memory, which the Druids cultivated carefully, and to dishonour the thing written down. Druids in training had to learn all the Bardic poetry, in a man ner we would call sensory deprivation. Poetic inspiration was an important spiritual practice, which the Welsh have focused on in their eisteddfod. In Irish myth there was a deity of poetry (Brigid), and a particular style of poetry, called Roscanna, wh ich has as its purpose the construction of magical incantations.

The Druids taught of the omnipresence of a spiritual Otherworld, that is sometimes accessible to us, and particularly close at certaintimes of the year, like at Samhain. There is a great sense of connectionand continuity between life and death, such that the ancient Celts did not fear death, but instead viewed it as a transition phase in the course of a long, even eternal, life. Thus, the entities which live in the Otherworld have no moral bias; they are neither good nor evil, like ourselves, but are what they are. There is also no division between an Underworld and an Upperworld. Reincarnation, or Rebirth in an afterlife much the same as this one, was probably their view of human destiny aft erdeath. However there is no indication that the Druids believed in Karma, as the Hindu people did.

Oak was an important symbol in druidic lore, as it is strong,tall, and very long-lived. The word "Druid" is thought to come from theGaelic "Duir", meaning Oak. Mistletoe was said to have healing qualities. Other important trees were the Yew, for its offspring grew from the dead stump of its parent, representing perpetually-regenerating life.

Trees are important because they are bridges between the realms of Land and Sky,they communicate Water between these realms; the Irish God Bile is said to make this possible. The Realms of Land, Sea and Sky unite within a tree, as at a seashore for example; great power could manifest there, and such places were best for poetic composition or spellcasting. Stones could channel, store, and direct earth-energy, and thus were used for markers, set in circles, and libations were poured over them in sacrifice.

Fire-worship is strong as well, but doesn't fit the Greek four-element cosmology. {see Elements #15) Fire is a thing unto itself, with the magical properties of destructiveness and cleansing, and bringing civilization. It is a spiritual principle, because it is always reaching up to the sky. This may be why they built those hilltop fires. Poetic inspiration is said to be a fire in the head, so Brigid is a fire-deity as well.

Druidic philosophy points to knowledge as the key to selfawareness, else certain mythological holy-places of greatest import wouldnot be associated with wisdom, ex. the Well of Wisdom (auspiciously located at the center of the world), the Spiral of Annwyn, and the Cauldron of Cerridwen. Mythic places are inaccessible but also not inaccessible, for it requires a leap of faith to find them; the Well of Wisdom is at the bott om of the ocean, but to Sea Gods like Manannan, who are capable of that magical leap, theocean is as the sky. That leap of faith is often found in the moment of poetic inspiration.

The Druidic pursuit of knowledge would seem to suggest that ethical action is action that brings you closer to Wisdom. I would notseek to define wisdom at this point in the manner that the Celts may have known it, yet here the correlation between druidic wisdom and Eastern mysticism is striking; one considers the Buddhist Eightfold Path as a prescription of right actions designed to bring one closer to Nirvana. Wisdom becomes a kind of knowledge above ordinary knowledge (like facts),a form of total-awareness, or even a state of mind. Archeological evidence of "beehive" huts, secluded mountain shelters, etc. suggest the Druids used them to achieve higher states of consciousness in pursuit of this inspiration. The pillars of the modern Druidic symbol called the awen, /|\ stand for truth, knowledge, and justice; the triskele (which looks something like a spiral with three arms) also demonstrates the significance of the number 3, and may stand for any triad though usuallyunderstood to stand for the realms of Earth, Sea, and Sky. (see Symbols #11)

The Fianna hero Oisin gives us this in a mythic way, a statement I shall arbitrarily name Oisin's Answer, because it is how he answered St. Patrick's question of what kept the Fianna together: "It is what sustained us though our days, the truth that was in our hearts, and strength in our arms, and fulfillment in our tongues."

15. EARTH, AIR, FIRE, WATER; ISN'T THAT CELTIC?
Yes and no. The Druidic elemental cosmology may have had eight ornine individual elements, of environmental rather than physical nature (such as clouds, stars, oceans, etc.) The Four Elements is the invention of the Greek philosopher Pythagoras, (father of western occult numerology, among other things) and exploring Greeks and Romans may have identified his thought with the Celtic metaphysics they encountered. It is known, however, that Pythagoras was aware of Druidic thought, and may have travelled to the Celtic nations. The number Three was usually more significant, for Celtic cosmology built everything in triads, and not even numbers or mutually-opposite dualities.

16. WHAT GODS DID THE DRUIDS WORSHIP?
This depends on the nation you look at. Ireland had different gods than Wales, who had further different gods than Gaul. Another point to consider is not only were gods known by different names, but many of the names were deemed too holy to pronounce aloud. (thus the common oath: "I swear by the god my tribe swears by".)

The Tuatha de Danann (Tribe of the Goddess Danu) was the name of the Irish pantheon, for the Gods were descended from Her. Ironically, Danu herself never m akes a personal appearance in the myths, but perhaps she is already everywhere, like the land. Certainly, some European rivers are named after her like the Danube and Dneiper, and the Don river in Toronto, Canada. Stories of the Gods are found primarily in the story of the two Battles of Mag Tuireadh, where they won the soverenty of Ireland from the race of Fomorians. With the introduction of Christianity, the old Gods lost status and power and became the Sidhe, or faeries, and many Druidic ideas evolved into the Faerie Faith. (see Faerie Faith #26) Some names you may recognise:

- Lugh Lamh-fada (Long Handed), Son of the Sun, father of Cu/Chullain. He is known by many names, such as Lleu in Wales, and Lugos in Gaul, and appears to be one of the few pan-Celtic deities. He bears the epit het "Samildanach", or "Master of Crafts" and on account of this Dagda stands down and allows him to command the armies of the Gods at the battle of Moytura. He is more commonly known as "Lamhfada", or "God with the Large Hand", and as such has numerous co unterparts in other Indo-European cultures, including the Hindu culture.

- Dagda the Good (good not by his moral disposition but by the diversity of his skills) He is King of the Tuatha de Dannans, most of the time, and is father to many of the Gods. He possesses a magical club that can heal the dead or slay the living.

- Nuada Argat-lamh (Silver Hand) twice king of the Dannans. Nuada lost his hand in the Battle of Moytura, and had it replaced with a mechanical hand by Dian Cecht. He has a counterpart in the Norse God Tyr, who is also missing a hand, though for a different reason.

- Morrigu, Babd, and Macha (a triple goddess of War, and also connected to sovereignty) A powerful Goddess. She is responsible for choosing who will die in battle. To the Iron-Age Celts, this means she chooses who will pass into the Otherworld. One of her more grisly omens is the Washer at the Ford, where she appears as a maiden wringing blood from the clothes of the hero who is destined to die that day.

- Brigid (a triple Goddess of Fire, Poetry, and the Forge). She is christianized as Saint Bridget. Perpetual fires were kept blazing for Her and never allowed to go out. Brigit's Crosses (a cross with three or four arms, woven from reeds) were hung over the hearth of the h ome, and Her blessing invoked in the preparation of forged items, food, and other commodities requiring fire.

- Diancecht, god of healing. His name translates roughly as Dia- "God", and nCecht- "of the plough". He crafted a magical well which would ressurect to life anyone thrown into it, although the Fomorians filled it with stones.

- Manannan mac Lir, God of the sea and master of magic. His name survives in the Isle of Man. Manannan is also a pan-Celtic deity, at least among the British Isles. In His realm, the Sea, are found the many magical islands that populate the Celtic Otherworld. The Sea is the Sky to him. His many titles include "Lord of Mists", "Lord of the Land of Women", "Lord of the Land Beneath the Waves". In the Christian period, worship of Manannan was probably transferred to Saint Micheal.

Welsh mythology tends to focus on the actions of heroes, and their interaction with gods. The primary source is the Mabinogion, a compendium of legends from Wales' mythic time. Some scholars thin k the Mabinogion more accuratly describes medaeval Wales rather than Iron-Age Wales; nevertheless it is a valuable source for Welsh-Celtic mysticism.

- Arawn, lord of the Annwyn (the Otherworld).

- Math ap Mathonwy, the quintessential wizard. Math requires a virgin to rest his feet upon, apparently to prevent him from contacting the Earth and thereby losing his power.

- Pwyll, lord of the kingdom of Davyd, and husband of Rhiannon.

- Arianhrod: She is the Goddess of Caer Arianhrod, which is

sometimes identified with the constellation Coronea Borealis ("Northern Crown"), which is where the souls of slain heroes go. Her name means "Silver Wheel", which may also refer to the constellation, or to the Wheel of the Year that is celebrated at each of the Fire Festivals.

- Rhiannon, (wife of Pwyll) Goddess associated with horses and the Underworld.

- Cerridwen, mother of the poet Taliesson. She possesses a cauldron in which a magical wisdom-granting brew can be concocted. Lyr, god of the sea

- Manawyddan, the Welsh counterpart to the Irish Manannan.

Gaulish deities are the focus of Caesar's records. He drew analogies between six of his own Roman gods and those he "discovered" in Gaul. The archeological record in Gaul reveals 374 god-names, many of which were gods of individual tribes or locales, or the many names used to describe the same deity.

- Lugh (Roman= Mercury)
- Belinus (Roman= Apollo)
- Taranis (Roman= Mars) a thunder god
- Teutatis (Roman= Jupiter)
- Brigid (Roman= Minerva)
- Cernunnos (Roman= Dispater) the Animal Lord or Green Man, and probably the God depicted on a panel of the Gnudstrup Cauldron. (see Symbols #11)
- Esus, Hu'Hesu, the Dying God
- Epona, the Horse Goddess

Also of note is the deity Herne the Hunter, a Saxon god popularly revered in the Mediaeval times and likely evolved from the worship of Cernunnos. Like Cernunnos, Herne is a male hunter-god, making his home in deep forests, having stag antlers on his head, and also associated with animals and with fertility. His image is likely the origin of the Horned God (see Symbols #11 and Wicca #17) worshipped by modern Wiccans. Cernunnos (and Herne) have a Hindu counterpart in Shiva, who is depicted surrounded by animals and named Pasupati, "Lord of Animals", in a rare excavation discovered in Mohenjodaro, India.

Not all Druids worship the gods by name. There is some (albeit historically unreliable) evidence that the Druids of old believed in a kind of universal Life Force, flowing from a central place (such as the Irish Well of Wisdom or the Welsh Spiral of Annwyn), to a nd from all living things. Perhaps the best modern description is Obi-Wan's description of the "Force", from the famous Star Wars films. If this force has a name in Celtic literature, that name is Truth. A number of heroes use a declaration of Truth to work some magical change in the world, and some magical artefacts respond to the Truth around them. One classic example is Cormac's Cup, which would shatter into three pieces of three lying words are told near it, and mend itself if three true words were told.

17. WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN WICCA AND DRUIDISM?
The present form of wicca is less than a century old, though it follows a tradition of wisdom that is as old as Druidism, if not more. Wicca emphasizes the Earth, and the Earth-Mother; Druidism has equal emphasis on the Earth, Sea, and Sky. Wicca has two deities, The Goddess (in her triple maiden-mother-crone aspects) and The Horned God. Druidism has many gods, who are not aligned in a dualistic polarity but exist independently. Druidic triple goddesses are not linked by matrilineal line (like maiden-mother-crones) but by generation, as sisters: Morrigu/Macha/Babd (war & battle goddesses), Banba/Fodla/Eiru (land and sovereignty goddesses) for example are all sisters. Druids are not bound by the Wiccan Rede; perhaps the closest thing to an ethical statement is Ossian's Answer (see Belief #14) "Pectiwitta" is another unhistorical Wiccan variation of Celtic religion, and the error is obvious in the name, for the Gaelic language does not include the letter W.

This is not to say that versions of Celtic Wicca are inherently untruthful from a philosophical point of view. Wicca occasionally borrows Celtic deities and themes for its work, and no Celt I know including myself has any problem with that. It is to say, however, that there is no historical Celtic Wicca.

18. WERE THE DRUIDS SHAMANS?
This is an extremely hot topic of debate, mostly because Celtic matters and Shamanistic matters are very popular right now, and asynthesis of the two has been sought by many fiction authors and somescholars. Druidism does bear very similar features to Shamanism, particularly in some of the magical feats that Druids were said to have performed. It is this author's opinion that a more meaningful question is whether Druids were similar to shamans (and the answer to that is probably yes) because the Druids did evolve from an Indo-European culture that had shamanism. But they were also something more. To answer the question, I shall defer to someone who knows more about it than I do.

From: Erynn
[ quoted with permission ]

The Celts had some very specific words for their religious functionaries and their visionaries. "Shaman" was not one of those words. Is there something wrong with the terms that our ancestors used, so that we must go off and find new words with which to label our seers and priests and poets? Druids are firmly a part of the noble social order and ruling class, rather than being at the fringes of society. Poets more often lived at the fringes, as shamans do. Druids could and did bar people from participation in community sacrifices and rites. I don't believe that this was a part of shamanic practice.

Formal training for many years in schools of druids or poets does not seem to be a part of the shamanic framework, although I could be w rong about this. Shamanism usually is taught either under a single master with one or a very few students, or by the spirits themselves. Druids and poets are described as gathering in considerable numbers in "colleges" for the purpose of instruction in many subjects, particularly in the cities of Gaul.

Druids and fili were considered very well-trained formal speakers bythe Romans, who sometimes sent their young sons to be trained in oratory by Gaulish druids. The Greeks and Romans thought of the druids as being Pythagorean naturalphilosophers, with a firm and delicate grasp of mathematics. I do not believe that the Altaic shamans are known for their command of mathematics, nor do I believe that they have an understanding of the metonic cycle of the sun and moon. The Gaulish druids had a very complex calendar which is preserved in the Coligny fragments. I have never seen any reference to shamans having calendars of this complexity. I could simply be missing something here.

Many Celtic "otherworld journey" tales are about people who have gone there unwillingly and without any control over the experience. The shaman is a master of control, and always decides when and where sh/e will or will not go into the otherworlds. Shamans can't be stolen away against their own will.

Celtic societies were literate societies. Although the druids were said not to write down important things, they were able and willing to keep other records in writing, using Greek for many purposes. Patrick was said to have burned "hundreds of druidic books" during his conversion of Ireland. Druids and poets are described as writing down tales and poems on staves. None of the shamanic societies that I know of were literate. Many still do not have written languages. This is not to say that all pre-literate societies are therefore shamanic societies.

In shamanism, there is a common theme of ascending to the upper worlds orsky realms, while I know of no extant Celtic tales about anyone ascending into the upper worlds to confront Gods or spirits. Yes, Gods arrive from there, but what humans go there? "Spirit flight" through the middle realms to spy on one's enemies or flit through the tops of trees in the forest isn't quite the same thing. I know of only one tale that could be taken as a tale of a shamanic crisis and illness (the Sickbed of Cu/ Chulainn), but Cu/ sends his charioteer into the Si/dhe realm to check it out for him before he goes there himself. The shaman in crisis cures himself. Cu/ was cured by the same fairy women who beat him in the first place.

While we ha ve a number of shamanic elements appearing in Celtic mythology, we don't usually have more than two or three themes appearing in the same tale. It's my understanding that a majority of the themes need to appear inthe same person for them to be seen as a sha man. This may be my own prejudice in the matter. And again, it is entirely possible to have a spirit animal guardian, to have visions, and to make voyages into otherworlds without being a shaman. It happens in many tribal societies all the time. Sleeping in a cave, eating berries and salmon and wearing fur doesn't make a person a bear either.

Erynn

19. WHAT ANIMALS ARE SACRED TO THE DRUIDS? Here is a brief, and by no means complete, list of animals that have frequent mention in the mythologies:

- Salmon appear fairly frequently in Fianna myth, and usually represent Wisdom. Fionn MacCumhall gained supernatural wisdom when he accidently burned his thumb on a magical salmon cooking on a spit, for example.

- Crows were sacred to the Goddess Morrigan, and typically appeared in the myths to forshadow battle or death. A crow landed on Cu Chullain's shoulder as he was dying.

- Deer were a hunting animal, and probably represented the honour that the hunters and warriors were obliged to maintain. Appearances of deer sometimes indicate the presence of the Otherworld.

- Boars were also a hunting animal, but a far more dangerous prey. Boars probably stood for war and death, but also heroic skill because of the effort needed to kill one. The ritual of the Champion's Portion required a Boar for a feast.

- Cattle were the primary economic unit of the Iron-Age celtic people. The larger your herd, the more influential and powerful you could be among the nobility.

20. WAS STONEHENGE A DRUIDIC TEMPLE?
It is unlikely. The question of who build Stonehenge remains one of academic debate, yet the theory that most historians find acceptable is that since carbon-14 dating places the construction of Stonehenge before the rise of Druidism, they did not build it. However that does not rule out the probability that they knew how to use it. The solar and stellar alignments Stonehenge embodies would not have been lost on anintelligensia so well versed in astronomy. The connection of Stonehenge to Druidism came during the eighteenth-century romantic revivals of Druidism.

21. WHAT ABOUT GLASTONBURY?
Some folkloric traditions and mythographic examinations suggest that Glastonbury Tor is the mythic Isle of Avalon. If, for example, the nearby river were to flood, the Tor would be an island. A certain thorn tree is said to be the descendant of the staff of Joseph of Arimathea, which was changed into a thorn tree when he set it there (the Thorn is sacred to faeries!), when he brought the Holy Grail to Britain. Avalon means "Isle of Apples", and there are many tales of magic al apples in the myths. Some archaeologists believe that, if one accounts for centuries of erosion, the sides of the Tor are terraced into the shape of a Cretan Maze pattern. Your author wishes to refrain from making judgement, but whether or not the region is Druidic, anyone who has meditated by the nearby Chalice Well knows it is a holy place.

22. ARE THERE ANY OTHER DRUIDIC SITES?
There are hundreds of stone circles dotting Scotland, Britain and Ireland. The Hebrides of Scotland are famous for them. In Ireland, there are many sacred wells dedicated to St. Bridget, an obvious borrowing from the earlier goddess Brigid. There is Newgrange, a temple/tomb/center for initiation rites in Ireland, thousands of years older than the Pyramids, which is constructed to allow sunlight into the inner chamber on Midwinter sunrise only. There is the Hill of Temhair (Tara) which was the high seat of Irish kings, and the stone that stands on it is thought to be the sameone called Lia Fail, Stone of Destiny, upon which the Ard Ri was inagurated, and if worthy the stone would cry out.

23. WHAT IS ARTHURIAN DRUIDISM?
The Arthurian legends are unique because they take place during delicate transition period between Druidism and Christianity. Christianity was well entrenched as the religion of the nobility, yet Druidism remained in the form of folk-practices. Misty islands and otherworldly hunting expeditions, which comprise much of Arthurian legend, clearly originate from the older Celtic mythologies where such encounters are common ways to enter the Otherworld. The Irish Druid Uath Mac Immoman challenged awarrior to a mutual beheading in much the same way The Green Knight (who can be interpreted as Cernunnos The Green Man) challenged Sir Gawain. The Perilous Bridge that Lancelot has to cross is similar to the bridge at Scatha's School for Heroes that Cu/ Chullain must cross. And perhaps all those "wise hermits", that the Knights are always running into, are Druidsin hiding. Merlin himself is now thought to have been a Druid by somemodern fiction authors, since he too was an advisor to a king, a prophet,and made his home in the wilderness. To stretch it a bit, perhaps the Grail legends follow those magical cauldrons like the one possessed by Dagda, which could feed armies and raise the dead, and by Cerridwen, which was a font of wisdom.

It is worth noting that the sword called Excaliber may have come from legends surrounding a real sword. The Celts were iron-workers, ahead of most other contemporary cultures. Iron-age technology helped the Celts defeat the Dannans (who worked bronze). Around Arthurian times, it was discovered that nickel-iron from meteorites could be used to create stainless steel, and swords layered with this metal would never bend, scratch, break, nor rust. Weapons like that would have been seen as magical, and would have developed names and reputations independantly.

24. WHAT IS CULDEE?
Culdee is Celtic Christianity, a union of Druidism and Christianity nominally founded by Columba and Columcille and centered on the Scottish island of Iona. Many Druids converted to Christianity when Patrick introduced it to Ireland, and though they followed the new religion they kept most of the old wisdom. Other Druids became Bards, and the Bardic tradition kept many of the old mythologies alive in the culture. There are stories of saints speaking with animals and plants, something usually attributed only to St. Francis of Assisi. The Carmina Gadelica, a book of celtic-christian prayers collected by Alexander Carmichael in the outer Hebrides, shows a very strong connection to the natural world. The Celtic church was less centralized than the Roman church, being somewhat more monastic than heirarchal, and also used a different way of calculating the date of Easter. Some of these monasteries were headed by women, including Abbes Hilda of Whitby who hosted the Council of Whitby, where it was decided to join with the Roman church and the rest of Europe. There is debate as to how distinct Culdee was from other forms of Christianity of its time, but there are some unique elements nonetheless, especially its art of illuminated manuscripts such as the beautiful Book of Kells. Its symbol is the Celtic Cross, a cross with a circle around its center.

25. WHAT IS ROMANTIC DRUIDISM?
Romantic Druidism is the style of Druidism which developed in the early eighteenth century from the desire of mystical fraternal-order members (such as Freemasons) to develop an indigenous British mystical order. It is characterized by a number of elements that make it distinct from historical Druidism, although Romantic Druids assert that theirs is the historically authentic Druidism. Some of the features of Romantic Druidism, and some of the reasons why historians dislike it, are:

- The Barddas: (see Misconceptions #10) A two-volume book composed in the sixteenth century by Edward Williams, a stonemason from London, who used the bardic pen-name of Iolo Morganwyg. This book describes a set of laws and philosophical propositions about the universe that the author asserts are what the Iron-Age Celts of Wales believed. The universe is organised into a trio of concentric circles: Abred in the center, being the source of organic life; Gwynfyd, or the realm where we are living now; and Ceugant the outer realm, inhabited only by God and apparently accessible to humans through enlightenment, or a merging with the divine soul, rather like the Hindu idea of Atman. The book correlates with known Celtic mysticism in that it describes things in threes, however, the cosmology described in this book correlates more closely with the neo-Platonic Christianity popular among protestant clergymen at the time, and has virtually no hint of confirmation in the mythologies.

- The Charm of Making: a magical incantation that forms the basis of all magical invocations. In essence, the world is a kind of sleepi ng beast, such as a Dragon, and the recitation of the Charm of Making causes it to dream into existence the Druid's desire. A version of the Charm of Making is found in the BBC film "Excaliber". Its origin is said to be in the long-lost Book of Pheryllt, but that book is also traceable to the eighteenth century and the Barddas, if the book of Pheryllt existed at all, which is dubious. However, the concept of a sleeping being whose dream is the universe has a correspondance in the Hindu God Indra, which may indicate a common Indo-European source.

- The Thirteen Month Year: The Celtic calendar is believed by the Romantic Druids to be thirteen months long, with each month corresponding to one of the lines in the poem "Song of Amergin", and with one of the trees in the Ogham alphabet. Overlooking for the moment that there are more than 13 lines in the poem and more than 13 trees in Ogham, the earliest reference to the 13-Month Year that your humble author could find is in the 1961 edition of Robert Graves' book on Celtic poetry called "The White Goddess", where Graves apparently invented it himself. His calendar begins at Midwinter, whereas all mythologies indicate that the Celtic New Year began at Samhain (see Holy Days #13)

- OIU: These letters are thought to form the sacred Name of God, which God pronounced when he became conscious of Himself, felt fear because He was alone, and so created the universe. From the historian's point of view it cannot be true because the Celtic people did not use that kind of writing (those letters are not Ogham runes), nor did they believe in a monotheistic God.

- Monotheism: Romantic Druidism posits that the Druids worshipped one God, a male patriarchal Creator Deity, and further proposes that the Druids were an all-male and celibate clergy. Some variations of Romantic Druidism posit that there are two deities: a God and a Goddess, and that all deities of all cultures are actually manifestations of the One God and One Goddess. This may well be true, philosophically, but it is an idea that probably would not have occurred to the Iron-Age Celts, who had large and diverse pantheons of many Gods. (see Gods #16)

26. WHAT IS THE FAERIE FAITH?
The Faerie faith is the set of folk beliefs and folk religion practices that entered the celtic culture when Christianity became the official religion. The Faerie Faith has no priests, ministers, Druids, or liscensed professionals of any kind, nor does it have established churches or complicated theology. For its professionals, there are "wise women" and "faerie doctors"; individuals who have experienced the faeries and carry the knowledge and skills nessisary to see them, identify their handiwork, and occasionally cure any ills caused by them. Biddy Early was a famous Wise Woman from Ireland. The Faerie Faith includes a number of superstitions and taboos designed to prevent insulting or angering the faeries. Certain objects, plants, herbs, places, and even weather conditions have magical signifigance in the faith because of the use that the Faeries put them to. When the Faerie Faith was most widespread, it was common to seek out a wise woman or faerie doctor to cure a disease in cattle or humans when the medical doctors or priests were unable to do so.

27. WHAT MODERN DRUIDIC ORGANISATIONS EXIST?
In the U.K., there is the Order of Bards, Oviates, and Druids. OBOD was founded in 1717, and has a corr espondence course available worldwide. The OBOD encourages a spiritual understanding rooted in nature and the land, and protection of the Earth.

Write to: The Secretary, OBOD PO box 1333 Lewes, E. Sussex,
England BN7 3ZG

In the U.S.A., there is Ar n Draiocht Fein, meaning roughly "Our Own Druidism". ADF is the fastest growing Druid organisation in the world. Its founder, Isaac Bonewitz, emphasizes accountable and highly qualified clergy, with a whole Indo-European focus.

Write to: ADF PO box 516
E. Syracuse, NY 13057-0516 United States

Keltria is a positive neo-pagan Druidic path focusing on the Celtic pantheons and the triads of Ancestors, Nature Spirits, and Gods. They offer several resources including a book of ritual, a quarterly journal and a correspondence course for members.

Write to: The Henge of Keltria P.O. Box 48369
Minneapolis, MN 55448
email: Keltria@aol.com

Once an internet discussion group, Imbas is now a non-profit organisation devoted to the reconstruction of iron-age Celtic religion, based upon the home, family and tribe. Imbas emphasizes a solid grounding in mythological texts and the folk tradition.

Write to: IMBAS 16864 Southcenter Parkway, Box 284
Tukwila WA 98188-3309 United States
email: imbas@usa.net

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